Tài liệu tổng hơp Tiếng Anh

n sufficient language knowledge may inhibit the learning of the content.
MODULE 2: LEARNING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. A project: is a specific kind of a learning task, in which pupils are allowed to choose a topic and direction of its investigation. Therefore the result is predictable only to a limited extent. It is a task that requires initiative, creativity and organisational skills, as well as undertaking responsibility for the solution of problems connected with the topic.
2. Why is Project-Based Learning (PBL) suitable to secondary school students?
- They are constantly observing and investigating their experiences and environments.
- Children are natural born investigators. 	- They are intellectually curious.
- PBL is best for brain development.	- Support social and emotional development.
- Gives children a sense of purpose.	- Strengthens their motivation to learn.
3. Why is Project-Based Learning (PBL) relevant to secondary school students?
- The middle school years are challenging. We struggle with keeping Ss academically engaged during these years of tremendous change.
- Because projects build on authentic learning tasks that engage and motivate Ss, middle school is an ideal time to intergrate project-based learning.
- The diversity of Ss’ prior educational experiences.	- Ss’ disparate levels of skills.
PLANNING A PROJECT: (10 STEPS OF PLANNING A PROJECT):
Step 1: Ss and instructor agree on a project: 
Instructor sets the scene, raise awareness about the issue, informs Ss of the project aims, introduces the essentials of the project: Giving Ss the opportunity to fine-tune the project so that they develop a sense of onwership.
Step 2: Ss and instrutor determine the final outcome of the project:
- Instructor proposes the final outcome of the project.	- Ss feedback on this preliminary plan.
Step 3: Ss and instructor structure the project:
- Ss help to structure the project.	- Ss decide on their primary roles and responsibilities.
- Ss sequence the project tasks and set deadlines for their group.
Step 4: Instructor prepares Ss for information gathering:
- Ss conduct interviews, search for information on the internet, in the library, etc
- Instructor monitors Ss’ progress, making sure that they are on the right track, giving them feedback on their language use throughout.
Step 5: Ss gather information: - Ss present the final outcomes of the class project.
Step 6: Instructor prepares Ss for compiling and analyzing data: Instructor prepares Ss for the upcoming language and skill demands of the information-gathring stage of the project.
Step 7: Ss compile and analyze information: - Instructor prepares Ss for the language, skill, and content demands presented by the final written display and oral presentation.
Step 8: Instructor prepares Ss for the final activity: - Ss organize and synthesize their own data. 
- Ss discuss the best ways to present relevant data to their varied audiences.
Step 9: Ss present the final product:
- Teachers provide Ss with feedback on their language, content, strategy, and skill use.
- Ss reflect on the language, skills, and strategies that they have mastered to conduct the project.
Step 10: Ss evaluate the project: - Ss will need to compile, eveluate, and synthesize the relevant information.
- Instructor prepares Ss for this stage by instructing them how to put information into different catagories and introducing techniques to compile and analyze data.
MODULE 3: ASSESSMENTS IN LOWER SECONDARY ENGLISH CLASSROOM
- Assessment means judging learners’ performance by collecting information about it. We assess learners for different reasons, using different kinds of test/types to do so. Assessment tasks are the methods we use for assessing learners. 
- Testing measures performance and is an example of an assessment procedure/ assessment instrument
- Journals: written exchanges between the teacher and her students. For e.g. after a lesson on wild and domestic animals, the teacher may ask her students to draw a picture or write a story about their experience with animals.
- Observations: kid watching, by observing how the students solve the difficulties, teacher know what she/he is good at or how to help
- Portfolios: purposeful collections of students’ work which document student learning - “produce a portrait” of a student; it helps children recognize their own strengths and weaknesses
- Students Portfolio to develop writing skills: 
	“Every two weeks, students are assigned a piece of writing (e.g. writing a postcard) to do in class. At home, they may re-read and edit it. In the next class, students are given sometime to exchange their paper with peers and discuss the problems he/she has with the paper. The teacher comes over and helps as well. The students will then rewrite the piece to have the 2nd version and hand it to the teacher for written feedback. 
	All the writing papers are put in a folder and submit to the teacher on regular basis/at the end of the semester for written comments from teacher.”
- Testing to assess students’ skills: 	“I normally run two kinds of test for the students, oral and written. The oral test is done at the beginning of all lessons on some individuals. The written (objective) tests can be 15-45 minutes long, done at the end of a section/term. The test results will be announced to students” 
- Assessment tools: Example 1: Students Portfolio to develop writing skills: 
	“Every two weeks, students are assigned a piece of writing (e.g. writing a postcard) to do in class. At home, they may re-read and edit it. In the next class, students are given sometime to exchange their paper with peers and discuss the problems he/she has with the paper. The teacher comes over and helps as well. The students will then rewrite the piece to have the 2nd version and hand it to the teacher for written feedback. 
	All the writing papers are put in a folder and submit to the teacher on regular basis/at the end of the semester for written comments from teacher.”
- Assessment tools: Example 2: Testing to assess students’ skills 
	“I normally run two kinds of test for the students, oral and written. The oral tests are done at the beginning of all lessons on some individuals to check what they have learned after the lesson. The written (objective) tests can be 15-45 minutes long, done at the end of a section/term. The test results will be announced to students. ...” 
Assessment of Learning
Assessment for Learning
Happen periodically (at the end of term/year/course)
Happen on daily/weekly basis
Check whether pupils have achieved certain goals or targets, usually through a test or exam
Help teachers to look for information which help us to see how far the pupils are making progress
Give information about what a child’s achievement at the end of a particular period of study > school 
Most important for both teachers and pupils 
- Summative -Product-oriented –Formal -More reliable
- More objective -Teacher assessment only
- For class as a whole -Teacher-centered -High stake
- Formative -Process-oriented -Informal -More valid
- More subjective -Self/peer/teacher assessment
- Individual attention -Increasing students’ autonomy
- Low stake
- Checklist Effective assessment for learning involves:
sharing learning goals with pupils 
helping pupils know &recognise the standards to aim for 
providing feedback that helps pupils to identify how to improve 
believing that every pupil can improve in comparison with previous achievements 
both the teacher and pupils reviewing &reflecting on pupils' performance and progress 
pupils learning self-assessment techniques to discover areas they need to improve 
recognising that both motivation and self-esteem can be increased by effective assessment techniques.
(Source: www.webschool.org.uk)
- Key characteristics of AFL (Assessment for Learning):
sharing learning goals
using effective questioning techniques
using marking and feedback strategies
peer and self-assessment. 	(Source: www.webschool.org.uk
- Assessment instruments/techniques: - Oral interview –Observation -Role-play -Learning Logs 
- Peer and group assessment -Student portfolios –Presentation -See how it works: ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT -Answer these questions:
Diagnosis/Evaluation
Motivation 
Teaching tool
Official Assessment
- Measure Ss’ ability
- SS’ needs/ starting level (beginning of a course)
- Achivement level (end of a course) shows what Ss need to learn more.
- Effectiveness of teacher’s teaching.
- The quality of the test itself
- Sense of achievement.
- Record of what Ss have achieved/ learnt.
- Competitive tool to make Ss want to do well.
- It makes Ss review and consolidate what they have learnt.
- Ss might learn within the test itself.
- At the end of some units (e.g semester test for grade 6)
- At the end of a course (e.g Grade 9 exam)
- For some purpose externa; to current teaching (e.g. the University Entrance Exam)
Informative feedback may involve:
- Telling a child that their response is correct or not -Saying why an answer is correct or not correct
- Telling children what they have achieved/ not achieved in relation to learning objectives
- Suggesting a way of improving	- Getting children to suggest how they can improve 
	(adapted from Gipps, Callum & Hargreaves 2000 Page 92)
Feedback: - Feedback is vital for learning but not all types of feedback help learning.
- Praise and rewards can motivate but do not over-use. 
- Link praise or reward to evidence of why the response is good. 
- Informative feedback helps learners to improve and learn
- When teachers use more informative feedback, they take on a supportive rather than a directive role;
- So this means greater involvement of pupils in their own learning. A good thing !
Helpful feedback: - Provides evidence of where children are now -Shows them where they need to be - Helps them to close the gap and move forwards -Encourages them to self correct 
- Involves them in thinking about how they can improve 
MODULE 4: teaching pronunciation:
Definition of pronunciation: Pronunciation refers to the way a word or a language is spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word. 
Changes for more confidence in teaching pronunciation:
Attitude / Awareness / Knowledge / Skills / Methods/ techniques
Classification of vowels: Vowels are classified in terms of:
1. the height to which the tongue is raised 2. the part of the tongue which is raised
3. the degree of lip-roundingthe length of vowels 
Number of vowels. There are 20 vowels:12 single vowels (monothongs) and 8 double vowels (diphthongs).
/iː/ /ɪ/ /ɜː/ /ə/ /ɑː/ /ʌ/	/uː/	 /ʊ/ /æ/	 /e/ 	/ɔː/ /ɒ/ /eɪ/ /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aʊ/ /əʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/ What are the goals of teaching pronunciation?
enable our learners to understand and be understood.
 build their confidence in entering communicative situations
 enable them to monitor their speech based on input from the environment. (Celce-Murcia, 1991).
Teaching Pronunciation: Bottom-up or Top-down?
Bottom-up
Top-down
From segmentals (individual sounds) to suprasegmentals (stress, reduced forms, rhythm, intonation, etc.) 
From suprasegmentals to segmentals 
Segmental/ Suprasegmental debate: Pronunciation has emerged from the segmental/ suprasegmental debate to a more balanced view, which identifies features which contribute most to lack of intelligibility in communication. (Goodwin, 1991) 
Principles in Teaching Pronunciation:
- Foster intelligibility during spontaneous speech.
- Keep affective considerations firmly in mind. 
- Avoid the teaching of individual sounds in isolation.
- Provide feedback on learner progress.
- Realize that ultimately it is the learner who is in control of changes in pronunciation.
* Teaching Pronunciation: What should be taught?
- 44 phonemes (20 vowels and 24 consonants).
- Word Stress/ Reduced Form/ Sentence stress/ Rhythm/ Linking/ Intonation (Basic)
* A communicative framework for teaching pronunciation: 5 stages:
1. Description and Analysis: the teacher presents a feature showing when and how it occurs. The teacher might present the rules for occurrence either inductively or deductively. For example, the teacher can either present the rules for –ed endings or provide multiple examples and ask the learners to figure out the rules themselves.
2. Listening discrimination: The aim of this stage is to focus learners’ attention directly on a feature that they might not be recognizing yet.
Example: contextualized minimal pair discrimination exercises
The speaker (who may be the teacher or another student) pronounces either sentence a or b. The listener responds with the appropriate rejoinder. 	a. He wants to buy my boat. Will you sell it?
b. He wants to buy my vote. That’s against the law.
3. Controlled practice: the learner’s attention should be focused almost completely on form. Some possible techniques: - Use poems, dialogues, dramatic monologues, anything whose content and level can engage a learner’s interest.
- Contextualized minimal pair activities (as mentioned above) are a combination of controlled practice for the speaker and listening discrimination for his or her partner.
4. Guided practice: the learner’s attention is no longer entirely on form. The learner now begins to focus on meaning, grammar and communicative intent as well as pronunciation.
Example: memory activity while practicing –s endings
Students are instructed to study a picture containing a number of common objects for one minute (two bridges, three suitcases, four glasses, etc.). With the picture hidden, they then try to recite the correct number of each item, while concentrating on pronouncing the plural –s correctly.
5. Communicative practice: activities strike a balance between form and meaning
Example: 	role plays, debates, interviews, simulations, and drama scenes
Note: 	The learner’s attention should still be focused on one or two features at a time. 
It is overwhelming to suddenly monitor all pronunciation features at once. 
Note: The three final stages, which involve practice and production, actually progress on a continuum. It is less important to define an exercise as strictly controlled, guided, or communicative. Rather, it is important to sequence our oral production activities so that they move forward systematically. 
* Identification activities:
Listen and circle the sounds	
Listen and put the words into the correct column
Multiple choice/ Odd one out
Stand up/ Sit down
Minimal pair fruit salad
Object grab
Same or different?
Tell me when I’m odd
Pronunciation journey
Pronunciation maze
Cloze exercise
* Some Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation:
Learnability - Teachability	- Intelligibility – Separate – Integrate – Visual - Physical	
* Some teaching pronunciation techniques
1. Contextualized Minimal pairs
Bowen (1975) was one of the first to stress the importance of teaching pronunciation in meaningful contexts. Rather than just distinguishing pen and pan as isolated words, Bowen embedded these minimal pair contrasts into contextualized sentences and rejoinders:
The pen leaks.	Then, don’t write with it.
This pan leaks.	Then, don’t cook with it.
2. Cartoons and drawings: can be used in the description and analysis stage of teaching a particular feature or can be used to cue production of particular sentences or an entire story as well as for showing language in context. 
3. Rhymes, Poetry, and Jokes: Nursery rhymes, limericks, and many poems all have strong patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables that help our learners hear (and to a certain extent feel) the rhythm of English. 
4. Drama: Drama is a particularly effective tool for pronunciation teaching because various components of communicative competence (discourse intonation, pragmatic awareness, nonverbal communication) can be practiced in an integral way.
Steps to conduct:
Each pair of students receives the script to a different scene
The teacher helps them prepare by modeling each line and having students repeat, drawing attention to aspects of pronunciation as they appear
The pairs rehearse (they don’t need to memorize the lines; they are simply to provide a dramatic reading – looking up frequently at the partner and reading with feeling)
The pairs perform the scene. 
The pair of students, remaining in characters, is first interviewed by the audience and then performs a short improvisation based on the scene. (optional step)
5. Kinesthetic activities: relaxation and breathing exercises, basic hand gestures to teach pronunciation, etc.
Some examples: 
Syllables are shown by the number of fingers one holds up or by tapping out the number with one’s hand. 
Linking thumb and forefingers between both hands illustrates linking. 
A sweeping hand motion for rising and falling pitch illustrates intonation. 
Once students are familiar with the gestures, the teacher can use them as silent correction techniques.
6. Reading aloud: most useful to practice with stress patterns of phrases, the interaction of sounds between endings and beginnings of words, and the resulting pronunciation and rhythm of these phrases.
7. Backchaining: have students repeat the word by starting with the last syllable and extending backwards to the beginning. It is especially useful in dealing with a more-than-three-syllable word. 
8. Games: Games can be employed to teach pronunciation because they are motivating. 
9. Comparing the mother tongue and target language: Teachers should be aware of the differences between the two languages (mother tongue and target language) in terms of segmental and suprasegmental features. Teachers should also help learners to see them and practise their pronunciation during the lesson.
10. Tongue twisters: Tongue twisters are an interesting way to practise and contrast similar sounds and have fun at the same time. But it is difficult for teachers and students to do it well. Teachers should tell students at first not to feel upset at making mistakes because it is even challenging for native speakers. 
11. Songs: Using songs is another motivating technique to teach pronunciation. It should be noted that teachers should design the tasks in which different aspects of pronunciation are practised. 
MODULE 5:
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS
FIVE CIRCLES OF DEVELOPMENT:
I. You 	II. You and your Ss	III. You and your colleagues	
IV. You and your school	V. You and your profession
I/ FIRST CIRCLE: YOU
 * YOU-FOUR AREAS TO DEVELOP
1. Skills: You learn to do something: Giving instruction more clearly.
2 Knowledge: You learn about sth, eg: How the sound of English are produced
3 Awareness: You learn how to use your eyes & ears better to find our what happens when you teach
4 Attitude: You learn about your assumptions about teaching, learning, yourself, your learners, your cultures
	(Foord, D 2009 The Developing Teacher)
* YOU-SEVEN WAYS TO LEARN:
1. Learning from Instruction	 2. Learning from Reasearch	3. Ideas	4. Intuitively
5. Analyzing you own teaching 6. ... an Inspirational Example 	7. Learning as an Adult
II. YOU AND YOUR SS: 
1. Getting feedback	2. Error correction	3. Meeting different learning styles
III. YOU AND YOUR colleagues:
Phrase
Obsever
Observee
Pre-observation
(meet and) talk about the class, level of Ss, the teaching points, the focus of the observation, etc
While- observation
- Sit back quietly, take note, does not interrupt
- T. teaches as usual
Post- observation
- Comment, asks Qs, gives possitive sugggestions
- T. answers &/or explains/clarifies things
-> Implementing Peer observation:
1. The T. has been aware of teaching skills and lesson plan
2. The Observer and the T meet to discuss the lesson
3. During observation, the observer writes a description of what happens in the lesson as objectively as possible
4. Th